Chianina

for Chianina these metabolites included alanine, glutamine, methionine, carnosine, carnitine, taurine, lactic acid, nucleosides/nucleotides, glutamate, glucose, and fat acids;

From: New Aspects of Meat Quality , 2017

Beef Heifer Development

Robert L. Larson , in Food Brute Practise (Fifth Edition), 2009

Brood/Type

Although smashing differences in fertility and growth occur inside breeds, at that place are differences amid breeds of beef cattle that should exist considered when selecting replacement heifers. Mature cow size and milking ability are of import considerations in matching breed and type to production environment. Producers should choose breeds and biologic types that will optimize milk production without sacrificing reproductive efficiency or increasing nutritional requirements higher up that provided by available grazed forages. In general, faster-gaining breeds that mature at a larger size (e.grand., Charolais, Chianina) reach puberty at an older age than slower-gaining breeds with a smaller mature size (e.g., Hereford, Angus). 9 Researchers have also shown that breeds selected for milk production (e.thou., Gelbvieh, Brown Swiss, Simmental, Braunvieh, Ruddy Poll, Pinzgauer) attain puberty at younger ages than do breeds of like size not selected for milk production (e.g., Charolais, Chianina, Limousine, Hereford). nine,x

Researchers have besides constitute that Bos indicus (Brahman-derivative) breeds and breed crosses are older at puberty than British-breed heifers. nine,11,12 British-brood heifers reach puberty at lighter weights than Brahman × British heifers. xi However, once Bos indicus heifers reached puberty, percent conceiving is not different from Bos taurus heifers. Besides, Bos indicus cows accept been shown to accept longevity that is greater compared with purebred Bos taurus cows. 12,13 Therefore the tedious onset of puberty seen in Bos indicus heifers does not extend to decreased fertility equally cows.

For commercial operators, crossbred heifers should be preferred because of their inherent hybrid vigor and greater fertility, longevity, and lifetime production. 14-17 In the U.South. Gulf Coast and in other less temperate environments, some influence from Brahman, Brahman-derivative (e.g., Beefmaster, Brangus), or other rut-tolerant (e.k., Senepol, Tuli) breeds may exist necessary for heat tolerance and parasite resistance.

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The Milk Fatty Globule Membrane

Sophie Gallier , ... Rafael Jiménez-Flores , in Food Structures, Digestion and Health, 2014

Proteins in the MFGM

MFGM proteins constitute 1–2% of the full bovine milk proteins, and depending on the milk source and how information technology is candy, 25–70% of the MFGM may exist polypeptides, ranging in molecular weight (MW) from 15,000 to 240,000   Da (Ye et al., 2002, 2004; Dewettinck et al., 2008; Jiménez-Flores and Brisson, 2008; Jiménez-Flores and Higuera-Ciapara, 2009). Indeed, Murgiano et al. (2009) detected differences between Chianina and Holstein cattle in the corporeality of proteins associated with mammary gland development, lipid droplets formation, and host defence force mechanisms. Mather (2000) presents a detailed description and suggested nomenclature of the known and major MFGM proteins.

It is very important that some consideration has been given to MFGM poly peptide composition from dissimilar sources. Affolter and his group take applied proteomic techniques to accurately quantify seven MFGM proteins from buttermilk or whey protein concentrate (Affolter et al., 2010). They used sophisticated laboratory analytical techniques, based in isotope dilution mass spectrometry, that describe in detail the quantitative differences.

From our own research nosotros accept learned that in improver to the large number and diverse functions of the major MFGM proteins, they appear to have complex interactions with each other, other proteins, lipids, and other molecules such every bit hydrophobic and hydrophilic interactions, and the germination of disulfide bonds (Kim and Jiménez-Flores, 1995; Morin et al., 2006, 2007a, 2008). It has recently been shown that XDH/XO and BTN form a high molecular weight aggregate through the germination of intermolecular disulfide bonds after a heat treatment at threescore°C for 10 minutes (Ye et al., 2002), while previous studies have shown that with higher temperature rut treatments MFGM proteins course similar high molecular weight complexes with milk proteins. Kim and Jiménez-Flores (1995) reported that with heat handling of 87°C, β-lactoglobulin (BLG) and other milk serum proteins interact, forming loftier molecular weight complexes with the MFGM proteins PAS6/7. The mechanism of formation was undefined, but did not appear to be solely due to the formation of disulfide bonds (Kim and Jiménez-Flores, 1995).

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Surgery of the Bovine Musculoskeletal System

André Desrochers , ... Norm Yard. Ducharme , in Farm Fauna Surgery (2nd Edition), 2017

Dorsal Patella Luxation

Dorsal luxation (or upper fixation) of the patella is a rare anomaly in cattle in Due north America (maybe considering of predominant dairy breed) yet plainly quite frequent in South America, where a review of 309 cases was described. It has been reported almost commonly in beef cattle (Brahma, Angus Simmental, Charbray, Beefmaster, and Chianina), buffalo, and about rarely in Holstein-Friesian dairy cattle. Females nearly calving are predominantly affected, but the condition is also seen in males although at a much lower frequency. Desmitis of the medial distal patellar ligament associated with work or slippage that results in hyperextension of the limb is believed to be a predisposing factor. Stretching of the medial distal patellar ligament allows it to catch on the medial trochlea, which it ordinarily would not. The status is most commonly unilateral. Historically, it is seen in working dairy cattle but rarely in those less than 2 years old.

A complaint of lameness afterward a long period of residual is reported. Clinical signs include a normal posture at rest with clinical signs, depending on the frequency and permanence of the upward fixation. The limb locks in an extended country, so the animate being has to drag the limb (tip of hoof) to move forward. When the patella returns to its normal position, the release from the extension makes the limb wiggle forward. If upward fixation is very frequent, the toe becomes worn down. The status somewhat resembles spastic paresis (see Chapter 18). However, spastic paresis is seen in immature animals (<2 years of age) with backward motion of the extended limb, whereas forward motion of the extended limb is associated with upward fixation.

The handling principle is to transect the medial distal patellar ligament near its attachment on the tibia. Considering of safety to the animal and operator, or because the udder interferes with the procedure in dairy cattle, the animal is treated, preferably, in lateral recumbency with casting and sedation. With the affected limb uppermost and the leg tied slightly backward, local anesthetic is applied over the medial patellar ligament attachment on the tibia or the midpoint between the tibial crest and the medial aspect of the femoral condyle. Using a 10 Parker-Kerr blade, a 5-cm incision is made over the cranial aspect of the medial patellar ligament merely proximal to the tibial crest. A large curved hemostat is passed centric to the ligament to isolate it, and the ligament is clamped. The ligament is transected proximal and distal to the hemostat with a tenotome and a segment of the ligament is removed. The end of a gloved finger is used to explore the ligament remnant to ensure that no fiber remains. The subcutaneous tissue is closed with a single cruciate suture using an absorbable suture, and the pare is closed with simple interrupted sutures.

The prognosis is very good, with a 99% success rate reported. Complications are related to wound infection or dehiscence. Although the status is generally unilateral, approximately iv% present for occurrence in the contralateral limb afterward treatment.

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SPECIES OF MEAT ANIMALS | Cattle

1000.A. Price , in Encyclopedia of Meat Sciences, 2004

Biological Types of Beef Cattle

Although the word 'breed' is used in common parlance to describe singled-out types of cattle, it is not a completely useful or biologically meaningful term. In the past few centuries in particular, livestock (and pet) owners accept gathered together groups of their animals with similar phenotypes and kept a formal or breezy registry of their progeny. This group of animals is and so referred to equally a 'brood', and members of the breed are normally descendants of the original grouping. Oftentimes a deliberate policy of inbreeding close relatives was followed to prepare the 'type', i.e. to ensure that the offspring conformed to the distinctive phenotype of the breed. An unavoidable by-product of this process was inbreeding low whereby the purebred animals were less fit in an evolutionary sense, and tended to accept poorer reproductive and growth performance than their non-inbred relatives. Crossbreeding nullified this inbreeding depression, through heterosis or hybrid vigour, which is simply the removal of the constraints of inbreeding.

Today, several species of cattle (genus Bos), comprising hundreds of major and minor breeds, are owned and used by farmers around the world. Commercial crossbreeding of these cattle can consequence in a wide variety of sizes and shapes, and the utilise of four genders (male person, female, castrated male and spayed female) and a wide range of ages and weights at slaughter farther exacerbates the complication of raw material inbound the beefiness concatenation.

Clearly, in trying to categorize the production traits of cattle, 'breed' is far too unwieldy a descriptor. Instead the term 'biological type' is preferred and is used here to point phenotype in terms of temperament, mature trunk size, muscularity and propensity to fatten, these being the about obvious traits of a market-ready beefiness fauna. A number of very broad 'biological type' descriptors are commonly used in the beefiness industries of the developed world, including the following.

•

'British' refers to cattle originating in Peachy United kingdom, adult specifically for beef product off pasture, and typified by Hereford ( Figure ane ) Angus ( Effigy two ) and Shorthorn. Traditionally they tend to be of medium body size and muscling with a relatively loftier propensity to fatten and a usually docile temperament.

•

'Continental' or 'European' refers to the multipurpose cattle from the European continent, typified by such breeds every bit Maine-Anjou ( Effigy 3 ) Simmental, Charolais ( Figure 4 ) and Gelbvieh. They are more often than not larger than the British cattle, with heavier muscling, a lower propensity to fatten and less docile temperament. A subset of this grouping, sometimes referred to as the Italian White breeds (due east.chiliad. Romagnola, Marchigiana and Chianina ( Figure 5 )), consists of very big cattle with a very depression propensity to fatten.

•

'Dairy blazon' refers to cattle that have been bred primarily for milk production. They are characterized by light muscling and a low propensity to eolith subcutaneous fat, just vary widely in mature body size from minor (Jersey) to big (Holstein-Friesian). They are also characterized by a college propensity than beef-blazon cattle to eolith intramuscular (marbling) and internal fats, including body cavity and kidney fat. Dairy bulls are unremarkably described as having unpredictable temperaments ( Figure 6 ).

•

'Dual purpose' is a term practical to cattle bred to produce both milk and beef. They tend to be of medium to large body size (Dark-brown Swiss, British and Dutch Friesians, Salers, Normande) with moderate muscling and propensity to fatten. Temperament depends on the biological type of cattle involved.

•

'Zebu' is a general term applied to cattle of the Bos indicus species ( Effigy 7 ). They vary widely in mature torso size and muscling, but tend to have a lower propensity to fatten than taurine (Bos taurus) cattle and a more volatile disposition than British and Continental cattle. Their strengths include estrus and insect tolerance, just their meat is slightly less tender than that from taurine cattle. Maximum heterosis can be obtained by crossing Bos indicus and Bos taurus cattle.

•

'Double-muscled' (muscularly hypertrophied) is a term used to draw cattle of any breed-type exhibiting a detail genetic syndrome characterized past extremely heavy muscling. Although information technology results from a mutation in a single cistron (a deletion in the 'myostatin' gene on bovine chromosome 2) this condition has very broad reaching effects in terms of body limerick and temperament. These cattle may be of any mature body size, depending on their breed-type, just always bear witness extremely high muscle-to-bone ratios and a very low propensity to fatten. They also typically exhibit fine bones, sparse peel and a nervous disposition. Some extremely heavily muscled breeds (east.thou. Belgian Blue, Blonde d'Aquitaine ( Effigy 8 ) and Piedmontese) commonly carry the factor for this condition.

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Factors affecting the quality of raw meat

R.K. Miller , in Meat Processing, 2002

3.three.ane Beef

In beef cattle, variation in quality in the U.s. has been well documented through the National Beefiness Quality Audits in 1991, 1995, and 2000 (Lorenzen et al., 1993; Boleman et al., 1998; McKenna et al., 2002) and the National Beefiness Tenderness Surveys (Morgan et al., 1991; Brooks et al., 2002). All-encompassing research on factors that contribute to this variation has been conducted. One source of variation implicated as contributing to this variation has been brood blazon.

Biological type inside Bos taurus cattle, British (Hereford, Angus and Shorthorn) and Exotic or Continental (Charolais, Chianina, Gelbvieh, Limousin, Maine Anjou, Pinzgauer, Simmental, and Tarentais, for example) and dairy breeds (Holstein, Jersey and Brownish Swiss) has been shown to influence tenderness, just mainly through differences in growth charge per unit, weight at the time of slaughter and fatness at slaughter. Continental-influenced cattle tend to be taller, have heavier carcasses at a constant fatness, and crave a longer time on high- energy diets to reach a constant fat endpoint when compared to British-based cattle. As biological type influences growth rate, fatness, weight, and body mass, these factors take a straight or indirect influence on meat tenderness, especially every bit carcass fatness and weight can influence cold-induced toughness and marbling levels. As long equally cattle are managed similarly and slaughtered at the same fatness endpoint, differences in meat quality are minimal. However, dairy-based breeds tend to have college marbling levels at a constant subcutaneous fatness level as pick for milking power appears to take resulted in choice for higher marbling.

Researchers at the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA), Agricultural Research Service (ARS), Roman L. Hruska The states Meat Creature Research Center in Clay Eye, NE, take examined genetic differences between many brood types. The Germ Plasm Evaluation (GPE) programme has completed multiple cycles. In Cycles I, II and III, F1 crosses out of Hereford and Angus dams and sired by Angus, Brahman, Brown Swiss, Charolais, Chianina, Gelbvieh, Hereford, Bailiwick of jersey, Limousin, Maine Anjou, Pinzgauer, Red Poll, Sahiwal, Simmental, South Devon and Tarentais bulls were evaluated for multiple carcass and beef quality characteristics (Koch et al., 1982a; Koch et al., 1976; Koch et al., 1982b; Koch et al., 1979). While differences in marbling score and Warner-Bratzler tenderness existed between Continental- and British- based cattle, differences were slight (Table 3.5) as long as cattle had been fed to a similar fat thickness or days-on-feed endpoint. If cattle are fed to contain varying levels of fatness or they are at different physiological points in their growth curve, breed differences may exist. These breed differences are and so a cistron of not comparing cattle at the aforementioned endpoint and they may differ in body mass, fatness level and marbling level. Differences in tenderness then are most probable due to the effects of marbling on meat palatability, cold-shortening effects and connective tissue differences.

Table 3.5. Summary of marbling and Warner-Bratzler shear force (kg) (WBS) differences between beef cattle breed-types evaluated in the Germ Plasm Evaluation plan at the USDA, ARS Roman Fifty. Hruska US Meat Animate being Research Center in Clay Center, NE

Breed group Bike I Cycle 2 Bicycle Iii
Marbling WBS Marbling WBSa Marbling WBSa
Hereford ten.0 3.one 10.vi three.ii
Angus thirteen.2 iii.2 14.2 3.0
Hereford × Angus 11.4 3.4 10.8 iii.4 11.iv iii.4
Angus × Hereford 12.1 3.1 11.nine 3.1 xi.9 3.2
Bailiwick of jersey × 13.7 3.0
South Devon × 11.7 3.0
Limousin × 9.2 3.4
Simmental × ten.3 3.iv
Charolais 10.9 three.2
Red Poll × 11.3 3.3
Brown Swiss × 11.7 iii.4
Gelbvieh × 9.six iii.4
Maine Anjou × 11.one 3.one
Chianina × 9.ii 3.4
Brahman × 9.2 3.nine
Sahiwal × 9.half-dozen 4.2
Pinzgauer × ten.viii three.3
Tarentaise × 10.0 3.7

Adapted from GPEP, 1974; GPEP, 1975; GPEP, 1978.

The primary breed effect for meat tenderness has been between Bos indicus versus Bos Taurus cattle. It has been well documented that Bos indicus-influenced cattle have college shear force values and greater variation. Research has documented that as the percentage of Bos indicus convenance increases, beef tenderness tends to decrease and the variability in tenderness increases (Damon et al., 1960; Ramsey et al., 1963; Koch et al., 1982b; Crouse et al., 1989; Wheeler et al., 1990; Whipple et al., 1990; Shackelford et al., 1991) (Table 3.6 as adapted from Shackelford (1992)). Early inquiry hypothesized that Bos indicus cattle were tougher due to lower levels of intramuscular fat and higher connective tissue content when compared to Bos taurus cattle. Wheeler et al. (1990) showed that Bos indicus cattle had lower levels of μ-calpain and higher levels of calpastatin. They concluded that calpain activity, as modulated by calpastatin, seemed to play a major function in the inherent tenderness differences betwixt Hereford and American Grayness Brahman steers.

Tabular array 3.six. Warner-Bratzler shear force (kg) means from the Longissimus muscle of cattle differing in Bos indicus versus Bos taurus inheritance

Reference Brood a Per centum Bos indicus convenance
0 25 38 50 62 75 100
Damon et al., 1960 B half-dozen.22 6.72 6.68 seven.14 – 7.79 9.27
Carpenter et al., 1961 B – 3.93 – v.02 – iv.65 5.29
Ramsey et al., 1963 B 2.31 – three.03 ii.46 – – 3.23
Luckett et al., 1975 B 3.94 four.37 – – – – half dozen.29
Koch et al., 1982b B 3.44 – – 3.92 – – –
Koch et al., 1982b South 3.44 – – 4.27 – – –
McKeith et al., 1985 B 4.79 – – 5.77 – – 7.18
Bidner et al., 1986 B three.ninety 4.xxx – – – – –
Riley et al., 1986 B four.30 – – 6.00 – – –
Crouse et al., 1987 B iv.00 – – 7.50 – – –
Crouse et al., 1987 S 4.00 – – 8.00 – – –
Crouse et al., 1989 B four.forty five.16 – 5.fourscore – 6.68 –
Crouse et al., 1989 S iv.40 5.64 – 6.64 – viii.41 –
Cundiff et al., 1990 N 5.l – – 7.00 – – –
Wheeler et al., 1990 B 4.75 – – iv.75 – – six.40
Whipple et al., 1990 S 4.70 – half-dozen.40 – 7.70 – –
Shackelford et al., 1991 B iv.l – – – v.40 – –
a
B = Brahman, South = Sahiwal and N = Nelore.

Adapted from Shackelford (1992).

As with other breed types, variation in beef quality within the Bos indicus breed exists. To understand the effect of major sire lines within Bos indicus breeds on beef quality in the U.s.a., a v-year inquiry study was conducted in the 1990s. This enquiry evaluated steers (northward = 252) from 15 Brahman sires and one Nelore sire and born from Hereford (northward = 44) or Angus (due north = 208) cows under standard environmental conditions to understand if deviation in tenderness existed (Hager, 2000). Sixty pure-bred Angus steers were included in the last three years. The overall goal of this research was to identify Bos indicus sires that produced progeny that had positive carcass traits and that were tender and less variable in tenderness. Quality grade characteristics were obtained and Warner-Bratzler shear strength values (kg) were adamant after 1, 7, 14, 21, 28, and 35 days of ageing at 4°C. Sire influenced (P < 0.05) lean maturity, overall maturity, marbling, quality class and shear forcefulness values (Tables 3.7 and iii.8) and sire affected (P < 0.05) shear force values after ageing for 1, 7, and 21 days (Tabular array 3.8). The Fi Bos indicus- influenced steers were less tender at 1 day and vii days mail-mortem than Angus steers (Fig. 3.2). Angus steers reached their maximum tenderness after 7 days postmortem. However, Fane steers showed a faster rate of ageing and were not different in tenderness after 14 days post-mortem ageing than meat from Angus steers. The rate of ageing was faster for F1 steers than the Angus steers, and shear force values did not differ betwixt the 2 breeds later on 21 days ageing. It can be hypothesized that sufficient post-mortem ageing can remove variation in tenderness between Bos indicus and Bos taurus cattle. Also, differences in tenderness betwixt Bos indicus and Bos taurus cattle can be partially attributed to differences in post-mortem musculus fiber ageing effects attributed to differences in calpastain and/or calpain levels. Interestingly, the relationship betwixt marbling and Warner-Bratzler shear force is very depression in Bos indicus-influenced cattle (Hager, 2000). To understand what chemical factors (Table three.ix) were related to Warner-Bratzler shear force over 35 days of mail-mortem ageing, simple correlation coefficients were calculated (Table iii.10).

Table 3.vii. Least squares ways and standard errors for quality grade carcass traits of Fi Bos indicus 10 Angus or Hereford steers as influenced by sire from Hager (2000).

Sire Lean maturity a Skeletal maturity a Overall maturity a Marbling b Quality course c
1 (n = 21) 167.7±3.54 d,e 149.five±two.07 157.3±i.92 d,due east 433.half dozen±12.29 h 697.0±8.32'
two (n = 14) 177.3±iv.15 e,f 157.6±2.42 166.1±2.25 h 320.7±14.40 d,e 622.5±9.75 d,e,f
three (northward = 18) 171.4±iii.76 d,eastward 154.eight±two.19 161.9±2.03 d,eastward,f,chiliad,h 341.3 ±   13.03 d,eastward,f,one thousand 637.iv±8.82 e,f,m,h
four (north = xvi) 172.8±iii.87 e 154.ii±ii.25 162.ii±two.09 e,f,yard,h 365.2±13.41 f,m 660.ii±9.08 h,i,j
v (n = 16) 178.6±4.35 e,f 146.0±2.54 158.9±two.36 d,e,f,grand 310.8±xv.11 d 611.1±10.23 d
6 (due north = 13) 180.5±4.33 e,f 154.ane±2.52 165.3±2.34 g,h 362.viii±fifteen.01 f,yard 652.1±10.16 g,h,i,j
7 (due north = 17) 172.0±3.87 e 153.4±ii.26 161.4±ii.ten d,east,f,chiliad,h 348.8±xiii.45 e,f,g 646.6±ix.10 f,m,h,i
8 (n = 17) 170.4±3.63 d,east 153.viii±2.eleven 161.0±ane.96 d,e,f,1000,h 367.three±12.threescore f,k 660.9±8.52 h,i,j
9 (due north = 17) 173.3±three.75 eastward,f 152.6±2.18 161.ane±2.03 d,e,f,g,h 343.1 ±   13.00 d,e,f,g 638.ii±viii.80 eastward,f,yard,h
10 (n = 15) 168.three±3.98 d,e 147.6±ii.32 156.3±2.15 d 348.ii±13.80 eastward,f,g 648.iv±9.34 thou,h,i,j
11 (n = 16) 171.7±3.97 d,east 151.9±2.31 161.4±2.fifteen d,due east,f,k,h 376.ane±xiii.76 1000 671.7±9.31 j
12 (n = xv) 164.0±4.07 d,e 152.4±ii.37 157.3±2.twenty d,e 372.seven±14.xi g 665.two±9.55 i,j
13 (n = 14) 168.6±4.23 d,due east 150.0±ii.47 157.9±two.29 d,e 332.2±14.68 d,east,f,1000 632.0±9.94 d,eastward,f,g
14 (n = 16) 183.8±3.89 f 151.0±2.27 165.1 ±   two.11 due east,f,g,h 339.five±13.fifty d,e,f,k 639.i±9.xiv e,f,g,h,i
15 (n = 13) 159.8±4.36 d 154.3±2.55 156.six±2.36 d,e 451.2±15.14 h 704.1±10.25'
xvi (n = 14) 170.four±iv.71 eastward,f 149.7±2.75 158.six±2.55 d,e 303.3±16.34 d 618.1±eleven.06 d,e
P-value 0.003 0.05 0.01 0.0001 0.0001
RSD k 14.vi 8.5 seven.ix 50.five 34.two
a
100 = A00 and 500 = Due east00.
b
100 = Practically devoid00 and 900 = Abundant00. c
c
100 = Canner00 and 800 = Prime00.
d,e,f,chiliad,h,i,j
Ways with dissimilar superscripts within a column are dissimilar (P &lt; 0.05).
k
RSD = residual standard difference.

Tabular array 3.viii. To the lowest degree squares ways and standard errors for Warner-Bratzler shear force values (kg) of F1 Bos indicus x Angus or Hereford steers every bit influenced by sire for post-mortem ageing period of one, vii, 14, 21, 28, and 35 days from Hager (2000)

Sire Length of storage, day
1 7 14 21 28 35
i (n = 21) iv.30±.23 c 3.45±.twenty b,c,d 3.03±.17 2.87±.18 a,b,c 3.10±.17 2.79±.18
two (due north = xiv) iv.41±.23 c three.57±.23 b,c,d 3.17±.twenty 2.90±.21 a,b,c iii.21±.20 3.39±.21
iii (northward = 18) 3.89±.24 a,b,c 3.87±.21 d 3.01±.xviii ii.99±.19 b,c,d 3.06±.xviii iii.21±.19
4 (n = 16) 3.85±.25 a,b,c 3.twenty±.21 a,b,c 2.76±.18 2.59±.xix a,b 2.lxxx±.19 2.75±.xx
5 (north = sixteen) 3.32±.27 a three.18±.24 a,b,c 2.85±.20 2.54±.21 a,b ii.87±.20 2.59±.21
vi (n = 13) iv.03±.29 b,c three.60±.25 c,d two.79±.21 3.12±.23 c,d 3.27±.22 3.03±.23
7 (n = 17) 4.34±.27 c three.68±.24 c,d 2.91±.20 2.89±.21 a,b,c 3.40±.20 3.19±.21
viii (due north = 17) 3.59±.23 a,b 3.00±.xx a,b 2.76±.17 2.77±.xviii a,b,c 3.05±.17 two.79±.18
nine (due north = 17) 4.21±.25 c 3.50±.22 b,c,d 2.88±.17 three.43±.20 d 3.57±.nineteen two.82±.twenty
10 (n = fifteen) iii.44±.24 a,b iii.32±.21 a,b,c 2.66±.18 2.82±.19 a,b,c two.98±.18 two.69±.nineteen
11 (n = 16) four.09±.25 b,c iii.33±.22 a,b,c 3.27±.19 iii.02±.20 b,c,d 2.95±.19 2.91±.20
12 (due north = 15) 3.56±.26 a,b iii.00±.23 a,b ii.59±.19 2.42±.21 a ii.99±.twenty 2.82±.21
xiii (due north = xiv) 3.96±.27 a,b,c 3.27±.23 a,b,c two.66±.19 2.61±.23 a,b,c two.97±.20 two.81±.21
14 (n = 16) iii.56±.25 a,b 3.16±.22 a,b,c ii.68±.eighteen 2.75±.twenty a,b,c iii.18±.19 2.86±.20
15 (n = 13) 3.28±.27 a 3.00±.24 a,b two.57±.20 2.66±.22 a,b,c two.74±.21 2.53±.22
16 (n = 14) 3.44±.29 a,b two.70±.26 a 2.65±.22 2.61±.23 a,b,c two.98±.22 two.81±.23
P-value 0.0001 0.03 0.16 0.01 0.09 0.xv
RSD eastward 0.85 0.74 0.85 0.67 0.65 0.68
a,b,c,d
Means with unlike superscripts within a column are different (P &lt; 0.05).
e
RSD = residual standard deviation.

Fig. 3.2. Warner-Bratzler shear force values (kg) for top loin steaks from Angus and F1 Angus or Hereford × Bos indicus steers from Hager (2000).

Table 3.9. Least squares ways and standard errors for chemic components of Fone steers as influenced by sire including Angus steers

Sire Sarcomere length, μyard Calpastatin, activity/g Wet, % Fat, % Total collagen mg/g Collagen solubility, %
one (n = 21) one.73 ii.73 72.28 b,c 4.93 due east,f 2.42 vii.55 b
2 (n = xiv) ane.69 ii.51 73.15 c,d, three.51 b,c,d 2.79 7.12 b
three (n = xviii) 1.68 2.53 72.97 c 3.75 b,c,d two.62 6.98 b
four (due north = xvi) 1.73 two.36 73.07 c,d 3.88 b,c,d 2.57 7.24 b
v (north = 16) 1.68 2.61 73.38 c,d 3.15 b,c 2.28 9.28 b,c
6 (due north = 13) 1.66 2.68 72.44 b,c 4.fourteen b,c,d,e 2.57 seven.forty b
7 (n = 17) 1.66 ii.sixteen 72.71 b,c 4.171 c,d,due east 2.38 viii.34b
8 (n = 17) 1.70 2.53 72.91 c 3.89 b,c,d 2.69 7.37 b
9 (north = 17) one.69 3.02 72.53 b,c 3.82 b,c,d 2.49 seven.23 b
x (n = 15) 1.68 two.12 72.lxx b,c four.00 b,c,d,east 2.56 vi.97 b
xi (n = 16) 1.69 one.90 72.26 b,c iv.05 b,c,d,e 2.52 7.80 b
12 (northward = 15) 1.70 ii.44 72.71 b,c 4.44 d,e,f two.44 eight.02 b
13 (due north = 14) 1.74 iii.56 74.27 d 2.94 b ii.46 eight.23 b
14 (n = sixteen) 1.69 2.56 72.47 b,c 4.04 b,c,d,east 2.37 11.32 c
15 (n = xiii) 1.75 2.63 72.62 b,c 4.54 d,eastward,f two.73 7.49 b
16 (due north = 14) ane.67 two.64 73.42 c,d, iii.56 b,c,d 2.61 8.26 b
Angus (n = 60) ane.75 2.43 71.61 b 5.39 f 2.65 vii.36 b
P-value 0.27 0.13 0.005 0.0001 0.95 0.03
RSD a 0.11 0.74 1.8 one.5 0.75 3.ii
a
RSD = balance standard deviation.
b,c,d,e,f
Means with different superscripts within a column are unlike (P &lt; 0.05).

adapted from Hager (2000)

Tabular array 3.ten. Simple correlations between shear force values and chemical components

Chemical components Shear forcefulness at different length post-mortem ageing time, days
1 7 14 21 28 35
Sarcomere length, μm −   0.01 −   0.02 0.15 0.09 −   0.004 0.0003
Calpastatin, activity/chiliad −   0.01 0.04 0.03 −   0.03 0.03 −   0.03
Moisture, % −   0.04 −   0.17 a −   0.01 −   0.12 −   0.08 −   0.11
Fat, % −   0.02 −   0.x −   0.20 a −   0.27 a −   0.26 a −   0.30 a
Total collagen, mg/grand −   0.01 −   0.01 −   0.05 −   0.06 −   0.04 −   0.06
Collagen solubility, % −   0.08 −   0.16 a 0.03 −   0.01 0.06 −   0.03
a
Correlations with superscript are significant (P &lt; 0.05).

adapted from Hager (2000)

Components related to the myofibrillar component, sarcomere length and calpastatin action, and the connective tissue component, collagen amount and solubility, were not highly related to Warner-Bratzler shear forcefulness values. However, fat was significantly, but only slightly, correlated to Warner-Bratzler shear force after fourteen days of ageing. While it would be expected that calpastatin would have a higher relationship based on the previous give-and-take, it should be noted that calpain levels were non measured. While the prove is potent that Bos indicus cattle differ in tenderness from Bos taurus cattle, there is not one cistron that contributes to this effect. The lean, fat and connective tissue components are interrelated. Manifestly, differences in charge per unit of ageing occurred and marbling differences may be contributing to differences, merely the data practise non support singling out i component as the contributing gene.

All-encompassing research in the 1990s has been directed at evolution of beef genetic markers. Genetic markers for marbling developed in Commonwealth of australia, a marker for marbling that was developed out of the Angelton Project at Texas A&Thousand University, and vii markers for tenderness that were developed out of the Angelton Project, are existence examined for commercial production. Even so, genetic markers place the genetic propensity of an animal and they do non guarantee that high-quality beefiness will result. Production and management factors that can influence beef quality need to be carefully controlled to ensure an animal has the opportunity to express its genetic potential. When commercial use of genetic markers is viable, these markers volition assist in removing variability associated with brood differences.

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SPECIES OF MEAT ANIMALS | Cattle

M.A. Price , in Encyclopedia of Meat Sciences (Second Edition), 2014

Traits of Importance in Finished Beef Cattle

Temperament

Although temperament clearly has an ecology component (even the wildest of cattle tin can be tamed and the tamest of cattle made wild by the way they are handled), it is in function a genetically adamant trait. Cattle handlers are very familiar with the 'typical' temperament of specific breeds of cattle and larn management techniques appropriate to those breed types. It can be generalized that zebu cattle and dairy breeds of bulls are more temperamental than the taurine beefiness breeds, with British beef breeds being more docile than continental cattle. Cattle exhibiting the 'double-muscled' trait are commonly stress susceptible. In management systems that involve frequent interactions between cattle and people, poor temperament is not likely to be a problem, partly because the animals become tamed through frequent handling and partly because only docile (or at least tamable) cattle are kept. In systems where at that place is minimal interaction with humans, it is possible for problem temperaments to remain unrecognized until animals are marketed, at which time nervous or aggressive temperaments can accept important negative consequences. These cattle can be unsafe to handle and can injure or bruise themselves or other cattle during marketing or processing, resulting in removal and condemnation of the damaged tissue from the dressed carcass and possibly condemnation of the whole carcass. Even if physical harm is avoided, the stresses of marketing and transportation might be astringent enough to result in dark, firm, and dry (DFD) or even pale, soft, and exudative meat.

Mature Body Size

Mature body size varies quite widely amidst the various biological types and genders of cattle. The lower range of sizes amid traditional cattle is represented past the Dexter (a taurine breed originating in Ireland), with mature bulls typically less than 450   kg and mature cows approximately 100   kg less than the bulls. Although some specialty miniature cattle take been developed that are considerably smaller than the Dexter; they are not discussed in this article.

At the farthermost upper end of mature torso size is the Chianina, also a taurine breed, from Italy, with mature bulls sometimes exceeding 1800  kg and cows reaching 1100   kg. It should be noted that the castrated male (steer) of all breed types would typically grow to exist larger than the entire male person, specially in linear dimensions (height and length), but only at a very advanced age. Cattle that are raised specifically for beef production are usually marketed at a live weight considerably below their mature size, with each market having a preferred live weight and fatness. When cattle are marketed as culls from the dairy- or beef-breeding herd, they are more likely to have reached their mature body size.

Muscularity

At a common alive weight, different biological types of cattle tin vary widely in muscularity as a result of genetically determined differences in the musculus-to-bone ratio. In a 'typical' finished beef steer carcass, the ratio of muscle weight to bone weight is approximately 4:one, and almost all steer carcasses fall within the range of three.5:i ('dairy type,' eastward.thousand., Jersey) to five:i ('heavily muscled' type, e.thou., Piemontese). Gender also has an event on muscle-to-bone ratio; bulls are more heavily muscled than steers, which are, in turn, more heavily muscled than heifers or cows. An extreme of musculus-to-bone ratio is plant in cattle with the 'double-muscled' genotype. Bulls with this syndrome have been known to accomplish a carcass muscle-to-bone ratio as loftier every bit 9:1.

The muscle-to-bone ratio is lowest at nascency and gradually increases every bit animals mature. In an animal that is continually gaining weight, no matter how speedily or slowly, environmental effects, including nutrition and direction, have little influence on muscle-to-bone ratio, because information technology is a genetically controlled role of alive weight. Even so, if an animal loses weight, it is lost from musculus and fat in approximately equal amounts, rather than from the skeleton; therefore, weight loss results in a reduction in muscle-to-bone ratio.

Although cattle of some genotypes comprise more total muscle than others, biological-blazon differences in the distribution of muscles, for example, between high- and low-priced cuts of meat, are too small to be of any commercial importance. Traditional livestock judges accept placed accent on this trait and it is well-nigh likely that a great deal of selection pressure, which should accept been applied to truly important traits, has been wasted in its pursuit.

Propensity to Fatten

The propensity to fatten is as well a genetically determined trait, just its expression is heavily dependent on environmental effects, particularly nutrition. In full general, the types of cattle that take been selected strictly for beefiness production (e.thousand., the British beefiness types) have a greater proportion of their fat in the subcutaneous depot, and those that have been selected for dairy product have a greater proportion in the internal fat depots. Dairy types typically deposit more than marbling fatty than beef types. Some cattle, notably the Wagyu or Japanese Black breeds, have been selected specifically for their propensity to deposit intramuscular (marbling) fat without excessive amounts of fat in the other depots. In near cattle, however, marbling fat is the terminal to be deposited and reaches loftier levels but in cattle fed high-energy diets for prolonged periods. These cattle also showroom high levels of fatness in the other depots.

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New approaches for verifying food species and variety

H. Broll , in New Belittling Approaches for Verifying the Origin of Nutrient, 2013

5.ane Introduction: the commercial importance of food species and varieties

Consumers have the right to articulate, accurate and correct information on food production packaging when selecting appurtenances. This labelling is especially important if the food has been candy in a way and then that the individual ingredients can no longer been distinguished. In addition, so-called 'premium products' are oftentimes advertised as using a certain ingredient or variety of ingredients with specific origins in an attempt to concenter consumers.

The European Matrimony (EU) established specific legislation (Council Regulation (EC) No. 510/2006) for such products, defined as PDO (protected designation of origin), PGI (protected geographical indication) and TSG (traditional speciality guaranteed), that supports and protects the names of high quality agricultural products and foods. The aim of the regulation is to protect the standard of the regional foods, promote rural and agronomical activity, help producers to reach a premium cost for their products, and eliminate unfair contest and misleading of consumers by not-accurate products. It protects the names of sure wines, cheeses, olive oils, hams, sausages, seafood, beers, Balsamic vinegar and too regional breads, fruits, raw meats and vegetables. Examples of PDOs and PGIs in which a variety or species play the master office are the Italian wheat 'Farro della Garfagnana' and the 'Vitellone dell'Appennino Centrale' beef. In both cases, the cardinal ingredient for product is only allowed to be sourced from well-defined species or breeds. In the instance of 'Farro della Garfagnana', the species Triticum turgidum subsp. dicoccum must be exclusively used if the product is to exist allowed to use the name, whilst for the latter mentioned product, meat of only three cattle breeds (Chianina, Romagnola and Marchigiana) are allowed.

Another well-described PDO is 'Miel de Corse' (Corsican honey), produced simply on the island of Corsica. Corsica represents a specific flora environment, which is as well represented as pollen in the honey and can be used as a mark to distinguish Corsican dear from other varieties.

In a written report concerning all 820 products listed in the European Register of PDOs and PGIs (excluding spirits and wines), the European Committee's Advisers-General for Agriculture and Rural Development found that PDO and PGI agronomical products had an estimated value of €14.2 billion in 2007. It was besides estimated that the 30% of PDO and PGI exported exterior the EU had an equivalent value of around €700 million. In 2008 all producers together in the 27 EU fellow member states generated €751 billion of added value in the food sector, making the market share of name-protected quality agronomical products and foods about 2% in total.

Legislation is also in place in the EU aimed at achieving a high level of health protection for consumers with food allergies. Directives 2000/13/EC and 2003/89/EC require a mandatory declaration of foods potentially causing allergenic reaction, including plant and beast species such equally celery, mustard, sesame seeds, lupin and molluscs. Such food labelling legislation is just dedicated to allergenic ingredients that are deliberately introduced into nutrient products, in contrast to traces of such allergens that have entered the food product as a result of, for case, contagion during the product procedure. The presence of such 'subconscious allergens' can affect the safety of the nutrient product, since it can crusade a threat to the health of consumers. The presence of not-labelled allergens in a food product could therefore be interpreted every bit non-compliance with legislation concerning food rubber.

In add-on to tools like allergen direction plans implemented by the food manufacture, detection methods are used which have been designed to identitraces of allergens on food production equipment and in food products. Combined, these methods define the essential framework used to convey the correct data regarding food product allergen content to the consumer, via appropriate use of precautionary labelling.

Some other instance of particular labelling needs is in the field of genetically modified (GM) foods and feeds. Co-ordinate to Regulation (EC) No 1829/2003 GM food and feed need to be labelled. This labelling can only be avoided if the presence of the genetically modified material is below 0.9% in relation to the individual ingredient of a nutrient production, and if information technology is unintentionally present due to commingling.

In the light of speedily evolving globalization of nutrient production, distribution and consumption, the merchandise in fishery products has dramatically increased over the final decades. In many countries the situation is characterized by a decrease in traditional fish species, introduction of new species and the exchange of high-prized species with less expensive species. Information technology has become increasingly difficult to fulfil the demand for high quality fish and products thereof, whilst at the same time guaranteeing safety and authenticity. Fraud, particularly in the field of fish products, has been reported all over the world (Rehbein, 2009). In response to this, the EU implemented a legal framework which specifies that fishery and aquacultural products may not be offered for retail use unless they are labelled with the commercial name of the species, the production method and the capture zone.

Game meat is also well known to exist a target of fraud due to its limited availability and consequently relatively high price in comparison to the respective domestic species. The final consumer cannot detect the substitution in a processed production, consequently the substitution with domestic species is resulting in a large profit for the producer. In particular, the partial exchange of wild boar meat with domestic pig meat is an attractive fraud for unscrupulous manufacturers.

In general, the addition or substitution of ingredients derived from animal or institute species could be of high commercial interest. In a recent scandal in Europe, beefiness meat was substituted upward to a considerable corporeality of 60% in some cases. Those cases are particularly complicated to be identified past the analyst, every bit he needs to know what he is looking for when applying molecular detection methods. Common to all the examples mentioned above are the need for methodologies that can distinguish and/or identispecies of either found or animal origin. Using traditional detection methods, information technology is possible to measure the various constituents of a certain product using classical moisture chemistry techniques. If the analytical technique identifies a component which should not be present, the sample is determined not to be in compliance with the specification. Merely it is much more complicated if attributes such as species substitution or geographical origin are involved in the cariosity of a food product. Separation techniques like spectroscopic methods have facilitated meaning improvement in the identification of fraud in foods, particularly in the determination of food product origins. Even so, it still has not fulfilled the potential of species-specific identification.

In the past, belittling methods to identispecies specificity and authenticity more often than not relied on the detection of proteins, either by electrophoresis and after its comparing with a reference sample, or via the application of immunological methods using antibodies directed to proteins of the species under investigation. In general these techniques are very sensitive, accurate and easy-to-use, just they are but applicable if the proteins are still present and not degraded, or if the proteins are in the same processing phase as they were when antibodies were developed against the protein of interest (Bonwick and Smith, 2004; Poms et al., 2004). If, for example, the raw, non-degraded poly peptide was used to develop specific antibodies, those antibodies are usually unable to detect the specific protein in a processed food product after cook-ing. Therefore protein electrophoresis and immunological techniques are ordinarily just applicable to raw, unprocessed foods.

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Authentication of meat and meat products

N.Z. Ballin , in Meat Science, 2010

Authentication of breed is primarily based on PCR and a subsequent assay of amplicons. An overview of the belittling methods is provided in Table ii . Microsatellite Deoxyribonucleic acid markers and a Bayesian statistical model identified the Italian cattle breeds Chianina, Marchigiana, Romagnola, and Piemontese ( Dalvit et al., 2008). Another study that used single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) markers directed toward the SRY factor and the mitochondrial NADH dehydrogenase subunit 5 (ND5) gene identified the cattle breeds Holstein and Japanese Black (Sasazaki et al., 2004). Amplified fragment length polymorphism (AFLP) (Alves et al., 2002) and multilocus genotyping of repetitive sequences (Garcia et al., 2006; Vega-Pla et al., 2003) successfully distinguished Duroc and the crossbred Iberian–Duroc from the purebred Iberian pig. Interestingly, Iberian pigs are used for the dry out-cured Iberian ham, which is a Spanish speciality. This ham must consist of 100% of the Iberian genome or a 50:50% mixture of the Iberian and Duroc genome. Random amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD) has successfully differentiated between horse breeds (Martinez & Yman, 1998). With regard to RAPD, it is relevant to consider that electrophoretic profiles from mixtures of breeds might be difficult to interpret, specifically for species that can interbreed. For example, the RAPD pattern of a hybrid is similar to the 50–50% mixture of the RAPD patterns of the parental species (Martinez & Yman, 1998). In add-on, a RAPD assay designed with primers toward mitochondrial Dna might neglect in the identification of hybrids as mitochondrial DNA is primarily maternally inherited (Adam, 2000; Gyllensten, Wharton, Josefsson, & Wilson, 1991). PCR and a subsequent amplicon assay is not the but possibility in identification of brood and, for case, most infrared reflectance spectroscopy (NIRS) was used to written report Friesian and Hereford beef; spectral differences were observed, especially in the region between 1449 and 1974   nm (Alomar et al., 2003). A larger information set should, however, be obtained to build a model capable of discriminating between Friesian and Hereford beefiness samples.

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Foodomics in meat quality

Paulo ES Munekata , ... José Thou Lorenzo , in Current Opinion in Nutrient Science, 2021

Foodomics

Inside the omics approaches to evaluate the quality of meat, transcriptomics stands for elucidation of the all the RNA transcripts at a given fourth dimension of the genome of meat tissue. Moreover, the transcriptomic shed light in the link between the functional elements in DNA and meat quality [25]. As previously indicated, breed is an important factor that tin influence meat quality. In this sense, understanding the differences in the expression of genes and the consequent result on the development of fauna and metabolic processes could explicate the meat quality attributes obtained from different breeds, muscles, rearing practices, and post-slaughter processing weather (Table one). For example, this arroyo was used by Liu et al. [26] to identify potential biomarkers to differentiate betwixt Min (Chinese pig breed) and Large White pigs: ACSM3, HOXC6, and ISLR2 too every bit the Longissimus dorsi muscle from Biceps femoris: CPT1A, CPT1B, and CRYAB for Min breed. Similarly, the differences in the fat deposition and the IMF content in the longissimus dorsi of Yunling cattle (PGM1, GALM, PGM1, GPI, and LDHA involved in glucose metabolism) and Chinese Simmental (ALDH9A1, ACSL5, ACADM, ACAT2, and ACOT2 related to lipolysis and oxidative metabolism) were evidenced by Zhang et al. [27]. Tenderness of longissimus dorsi obtained from Maremmana and Chianina cattle were also explained in terms of gene expression of several proteins such equally TRIM45 (a protein involved in growth, cell differentiation and apoptosis), TRIM32 (regulation of skeletal musculus differentiation and the regeneration of adult skeletal muscle), and PRKAG3 (regulation of energy metabolism) [28]. The authors also indicated that the differences in glycogen storage in skeletal muscle could be explained by diferential affluence of isoforms of PRKAG3. Additionally, the effect of diet composition in gene expression and the consequent quality of meat was assessed by Chen et al. [29• ]. In this study, the expression of genes ACOT4, ECHS1, HACD1, NPR1, ADCY2, MGLL, and IRS1 (fatty acid metabolism), TNNC1, MYL3, TCAP, and TNNT1 (muscle formation and development) in Landrace   ×   Yorkshire pigs were affected past the amount of mulberry leaves in the feed. Accordingly, the authors suggested that these could explain the differences observed in the drip loss and shear strength of longissimus dorsi.

Table 1. Foodomics approaches in the option of biomarkers related to meat quality

FoodOmic approach Muscle/cut (brood) Selected variable(s) Quality attributes (selected genes, metabolites, proteins or lipids) Ref.
Transcriptomics Longissimus dorsi and biceps femoris (Min and Large White pigs) Breed Breed (ACSM3, HOXC6, ISLR2, NEFM, PLP1, SIM1, ZIC1, and ZNF503) and muscle/cut differences (AMD1, CPT1A, CPT1B, CRYAB, GPX3, HSPB1, IRS1, PPARA, PPARGC1A, PYGM, RASGRP3, UCP3, and ZIC1) [26]
Transcriptomics Longissimus dorsi (Yunling and Chinese Simmental cattle) Breed International monetary fund and fatty acrid composition (ALDH9A1, ACSL5, ACADM, ACAT2, and ACOT2 for Yunling breed; PGM1, GALM, PGM1, GPI, and LDHA for Simmental brood) [27]
Transcriptomics Longissimus dorsi (Maremmana and Chianina cattle) Breed Tenderness (TRIM45, TRIM32, and PRKAG3) [28]
Transcriptomics Longissimus dorsi (Landrace   ×   Yorkshire pigs) Nutrition Water loss (ACOT4, ECHS1, HACD1, NPR1, ADCY2, MGLL and IRS1) and shear forcefulness (TNNC1, MYL3, TCAP, and TNNT1) [29• ]
Metabolomics Longissimus thoracis (Piedmontese cull cows) Aging time WHC, cooking loss, and shear force (serine and arginine) [31]
Metabolomics Longissimus dorsi (Lamb, breed not indicated) Aging time and atmospheric condition, and display fourth dimension Color (NADH, L-methionine, a sugar phosphate, taurine, guanosine and a malic acid–borate complex) [32]
Proteomics (integrative study) Longissimus thoracis and Semitendinosus muscles of different French breeds (steers, bulls, and cows) Gender, brood, muscle and evaluation method of tenderness Robust protein biomarkers of beefiness tenderness whatever the muscle (HSPB1, HSPB6, TPI1, YWHAE, MYH1, MYL1, MYL2, and MYBPH), robust protein biomarkers whatever the gender and muscle (TNNT3), robust biomarker whatever the muscle of toughness in bulls and of tenderness in cows (PGM1), robust biomarker of longissimus thoracis tenderness for dissimilar genders (HSPA1B and ACTA1), biomarkers of longissimus thoracis tenderness with similarities amongst genders (ENO1 and ENO3 between immature bulls and cows; HSPA9 and MSRA between steers and cows); major beefiness tenderness biomarkers of semitendinosus muscle (PVALB) [37•• ]
Proteomics Longissimus thoracis (PDO Maine-Anjou cows) Rearing practices Ultimate pH, color, shear force, sensory attributes, and IMF (MyHC-IIx, PGM1, Hsp40, ICDH, and Hsp70-Grp75) [4]
Proteomics Longissimus thoracis (Aberdeen Angus, Limousin and Blond d'Aquitaine young bulls) Brood, cooking temperature, and land origin of panelists Tenderness (MyHC-I, MyHC-IIa, MyHC-IIx, DJ-1, PRDX6, and CAPN1) [35]
Proteomics Longissimus lumborum, semitendinosus and semimembranosus (Horse, breed not indicated) Aging fourth dimension and cut Shear force (22 horse-specific proteins; interaction between aging time and cut) [38]
Proteomics Longisimus thoracis et lumborum (Iberian wild deer) Tenderness Shear forcefulness (IVD, LAMB1, MYL3, SDHC, and SDHA) and International monetary fund (FABP4, IVD, LAMB1, MYL3, CRYZ, and SERPINB6) [36•• ]
Lipidomics Shoulder, rump, loin, shank and belly (Tibetan, Jilin and Sanmenxia pork) Cut and breed Cut and breed (several lipid compounds; each cut and breed have specific biomarkers; triglycerides, phospholipids, fat acids, and polyketides) [41]

International monetary fund: intramuscular fat; PDO: Protected Designation of Origin; WHC: h2o holding chapters; ACADM: acyl-CoA dehydrogenase medium chain; ACAT2: acetyl-CoA acetyltransferase ii; ACOT2: acyl-CoA thioesterase ii; ACOT4: acyl-coenzyme A thioesterase four; ACSL5: acyl-CoA synthetase long chain family member 5; ACSM3: acyl-CoA synthetase medium chain family member 3; ACTA1: Actin, alpha skeletal musculus; ACTN2: alpha-actinin-2; ADCY2: adenylyl cyclase type 2; ADSSL1: adenylosuccinate synthetase isozyme 1; ALDH9A1: aldehyde dehydrogenase nine family member A1; AMD1: adenosylmethionine decarboxylase 1; CAPN1: calpain 1; CAPZB: capping actin protein of muscle z-line subunit beta; CFH: complement cistron H; CPT1A: carnitine palmitoyltransferase 1A; CPT1B: carnitine palmitoyltransferase 1B; CRYAB: alpha-crystallin B chain; DJ-i: protein deglycase; ECHS1: enoyl-coa hydratase, short chain 1; ENO1: blastoff-enolase; ENO3: beta-enolase; FABP4: fatty acid binding poly peptide 4; FHL1: 4 and a half LIM domains one; GALM: galactose mutarotase; GAPDH: glyceraldehyde-three-phosphate dehydrogenase; GOT1: aspartate aminotransferase, cytoplasmic; GPI: glucose-6-phosphate isomerase; GPX3: glutathione peroxidase 3; HACD1: 3-hydroxyacyl-CoA dehydratase 1; HOXC6: homeobox C6; HPX: hemopexin; Hsp40: rut stupor protein 40 (encoded past DNAJA1); HSPA1B : Heat stupor lxx   kDa protein 1A; Hsp70-Grp75: heat shock protein 70-glucose regulated poly peptide 75 (encoded past HSPA9); HSPB1: heat shock protein beta-1; HSPB6: heat daze protein beta-6; ICDH: isocitrate dehydrogenase; IRS1: insulin receptor substrate 1; ISLR2: immunoglobulin superfamily containing leucine rich repeat 2; IVD: isovaleryl-CoA dehydrogenase; LAMB1: laminin subunit beta-one; LDHA: lactate dehydrogenase A; MASP2: mannan-binding lectin serine protease two; MGLL: monoglyceride lipase; MYBPH: myosin-binding protein H; MYH1: myosin-i; MYH7: Myosin-7; MyHC-I: myosin heavy chain I; MyHC-IIa: myosin heavy chain IIa; MyHC-IIx: MHC-IIX: myosin heavy chain IIX (encoded by MYH1); MYL1: Myosin light chain 1/three, skeletal musculus isoform; MYL2: Myosin regulatory light chain ii, ventricular/cardiac musculus isoform; MYL3: myosin calorie-free chain 3; MSRA: Mitochondrial peptide methionine sulfoxide reductase; NEFM: neurofilament medium; NPR1: natriuretic peptide receptor ane; OGDH: 2-oxoglutarate dehydrogenase, mitochondrial; OGN: mimecan; PGM1: phosphoglucomutase i; PLA2G2D5: phospholipase A2; PLP1: proteolipid protein 1; PPARA: peroxisome proliferator activated receptor alpha; PPARGC1A: peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma coactivator 1-alpha; PRDX6: peroxiredoxin-6; PVALB: Parvalbumin; PRKAG3: protein kinase amp-activated not-catalytic subunit gamma three; PYGM: glycogen phosphorylase; RASGRP3: ras guanyl-releasing protein 3; SDHA: succinate dehydrogenase [ubiquinone] flavoprotein subunit; SDHC: succinate dehydrogenase cytochrome b560 subunit; SERPINB6: serpin B6; SERPINF2: alpha-2-antiplasmin; SIM1: single-minded homolog one; TCAP: titin-cap; TNNT3: Troponin T Fast; TNNC1: troponin C1, tedious skeletal and cardiac muscles; TNNT1: troponin T1, slow skeletal type; TPI1: Triosephosphate isomerase; TRIM32: tripartite motif containing 32; TRIM45: tripartite motif containing 45; UCP3: uncoupling poly peptide three; VCL: vinculin; YWHAE: tyrosine iii-monooxygenase/tryptophan 5-monooxygenase activation poly peptide, 14-3-three epsilon; ZIC1: zic family unit member 1; and ZNF503: zinc finger protein 503. Genes encoding proteins are indicated in italic.

From another bespeak of view, the metabolomic can be divers as a comprehensive exploration using qualitative and quantitative assessment of small hydrophilic molecules/metabolites (too known as metabolome) plant in a food sample. A food metabolome includes several compounds such as polyphenols, organic acids, amino acids, vitamins, and minerals from the endogenous metabolism or ingestion/exposure to exogenous compounds that straight reverberate the present and past metabolic processes in a food matrix [30]. An interesting approach in the use of metabolomics consist in the identification of potential biomarkers to bespeak the evolution of meat backdrop during aging menstruum (Table ane). Accordingly, Lana et al. [31] selected potential indicators from the metabolome of longissimus thoracis obtained from Piedmontese cull cows. According to these authors, serine and arginine metabolites had the great potential to control the evolution of WHC, cooking loss (both negative correlations) and shear strength (positive correlation). Moreover, the authors also demonstrated that the metabolic processes related to autophagic response and nitrogen metabolism explained the importance of serine and arginine for the quality of Piedmontese choose cow. Similarly, NADH, L-methionine, a sugar phosphate, taurine, guanosine and a malic acrid–borate complex were proposed as potential biomarkers to control the changes in color of longissimus dorsi in lambs during aging for 1 calendar week or 8 weeks, vacuum or modified temper packaging, and 1 or seven days of display [32]. Moreover, this report strengthened the function of reactions involving myoglobin and the presence of antioxidant enzymes in the stability of meat color. A recent comprehensive review past Muroya and co-workers [33• ] in the field of MEATabolomics to study both musculus and meat metabolites summarized all the researchers conducted effectually the world for the identification of potential biomarkers to command meat quality under several factors.

On the other hand, proteomics is a large-scale study of proteins that gives insights about the structural and functional meat proteins. Moreover, proteomics can also clarify the protein-poly peptide interactions and too their molecular location in the sample [34]. In the case of meat, this approach fits perfectly in the discovery of biological process involving meat quality attributes (Tabular array 1). For example, proteomics information revealed the effect of rearing practices and diet composition (hay, grass, and haylage) on the quality attributes of meat (longissimus thoracis) from PDO Maine-Anjou cows [4]. According to this study by Gagaoua and co-workers, different diets induced pregnant abundance changes of MyHC-IIx (structural function), PGM1, ICDH (free energy metabolism), Hsp40, and Hsp70-Grp75 (stress response proteins) that are linked with ultimate pH, colour, shear force, sensory attributes, and IMF. Some other experiment carried out by Gagaoua et al. [35] revealed that MyHC-I, MyHC-IIa, MyHC-IIx (structural proteins); DJ-1, PRDX6 (oxidative stress); and CAPN1 (proteolysis) could be used as biomarkers for tenderness regardless of the end-signal cooking temperature (55 vs 74   °C), panelists origin (French and UK citizens) too as cattle breed (Aberdeen Angus, Limousin, or Blond d'Aquitaine). In another experiment related to meat tenderness, López-Pedrouso et al. [36•• ] institute that IVD, LAMB1, MYL3, SDHC and SDHA could be used equally biomarkers for longisimus thoracis et lumborum (Iberian wild deer). Additionally, the authors indicated that FABP4, IVD, CRYZ (metabolism), LAMB1 (cell signaling), MYL3 (structural function), and SERPINB6 (regulation of cellular processes) were potential biomarkers for Imf. In the frame of meta-proteomics, a recent integrative and comprehensive study past Picard and Gagaoua [37•• ] allowed to identify among twelve proteomic studies from the aforementioned laboratory on two muscles beingness longissimus thoracis and semitendinosus a total of 61 putative protein biomarkers resulting an extensive list (among genders, breeds, muscles and evaluation method of tenderness) proposed for validation (Table ane). This meta-proteomics allowed a ameliorate agreement of the biological processes underpinning beef tenderness in two muscles of French breeds and their variations according to the main factors underlying this of import quality for both consumers and industries. In the case of equus caballus meat, a recent study carried out by della Malva [38] identified 22 proteins specific proteins to follow up the influence of aging fourth dimension in three muscles (longissimus lumborum, semitendinosus, and semimembranosus). The authors proposed that MYL1 and MYL2 as potential markers for shear strength since the accumulation of these proteins were influenced by cut and crumbling time.

In our quest for biomarkers of beefiness qualities, especially of bovine tenderness, a recent integromics meta-assay on 28 proteomics experiments from the literature allowed to place the master molecular signatures of beefiness tenderness on Longissimus thoracis muscle [39•• ]. This study gathered 128 protein biomarkers from which 64 were found in a minimum of two studies, allowing and then the authors to propose a robust list of 33 biomarkers identified in at least four experiments for time to come validation. This integromics meta-analysis highlighted the degree of the interconnectedness of the pathways underlying beef tenderness and the relevance in the order of importance of musculus contractile and structure proteins, energy metabolism proteins, heat stress proteins and oxidative stress proteins (Figure 2) in the conclusion of beef tenderness.

Figure 2

Effigy 2. List of the 33 robust biomarkers of beef tenderness, from 5 main biological pathways, shortlisted with a cut-off ≥ iv from 124 proteins [39•• ]. Musculus wrinkle and structure pathway grouped 12 proteins: ACTA1: Actin; MYH1: Myosin-ane; MYL1: Myosin low-cal concatenation 1/3, skeletal muscle isoform; TNNT3: Troponin T, fast; MYH7: Myosin-7; MYBPH: Myosin binding protein H; FHL1: Iv and a half LIM domains protein 1; MYLPF: Myosin regulatory lite concatenation two, TNNT1: Troponin T, deadening; CAPZB: F-actin-capping protein subunit beta; TNNC1: Troponin C, slow, TNNI2: Troponin I, fast. Energy metabolism pathway grouped 9 proteins: CKM: Creatine kinase 1000-type; ENO3: Beta-enolase; ENO1: Alpha-enolase; GAPDH: Glyceraldehyde-three-phosphate dehydrogenase; PGM1: Phosphoglucomutase-i; TPI1: Triosephosphate isomerase; MDH1: Malate dehydrogenase; ALDOA: Fructose-bisphosphate aldolase A; PKM: Pyruvate kinase. Responses to stress pathway grouped eight Heat shock proteins : HSPB1: Rut shock protein beta-1; HSPB6: Heat shock protein beta-6; HSPA1A: Heat daze seventy kDa protein 1A; CRYAB: Alpha-crystallin B chain; HSPA8: Rut daze cognate 71 kDa; HSPA1B: Heat shock 70 kDa protein 1B; HSPA9: Stress-70 protein, mitochondrial; YWHAE: fourteen-3-3 protein epsilon. Oxidative stress pathway grouped 3 proteins: PARK7: Protein/nucleic acrid deglycase DJ-one; PRDX6: Peroxiredoxin-6; SOD1: Superoxide dismutase [Cu-Zn]. Prison cell detoxification : CA3: Carbonic anhydrase iii.

The comprehensive written report of lipid components in nutrient samples is known as lipidomics [13]. This arroyo determines the limerick of fatty acids, glycerolipids, glycerophospholipids, polyketides, prenol lipids, saccharolipids, sphingolipids, and sterol lipids [xl]. The use of lipidomics in the quality assessment of meat was explored in a recent study that aimed to differentiate cut (loin, rump, shank, shoulder, and belly) and brood (Jilin, Sanmenxia and Tibetan) of pork [41]. According to these authors, the differentiation of cut for Tibetan pigs can be performed with arachidyl carnitine, Jilin black pigs with the diglyceride 14:0/18:1(9Z)/0:0, and Sanmenxia blackness pigs using diglyceride (14:0/eighteen:1(9Z)/0:0). Regarding the differentiation of breeds, the authors indicated that 100 lipid compounds (such as triglyceride (xv:0/eighteen:one(9Z)/18:ane(9Z)), phosphatidylserine (O-xviii:0/16:0), half-dozen-deoxoteasterone, isobutyryl-L -carnitine, artemisinic acrid, and arachidyl carnitine) could be selected.

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